How IT Came to Rule the World, 1.9: Xerox PARC
Posted on | August 26, 2010 | No Comments
A major, but a transitional step for personalized computing and data networking occurred at Xerox, the paper copier megalith. Xerox appropriated much of the research work done at the Augmentation Research Center (ARC) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) for their new research center situated in northern California. The Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) was set up by Xerox in 1970 to establish leadership in the “architecture of information,” a vague but enticing term coined by Xerox CEO Peter McColough.(1) Drawing on Xerox’s great wealth, PARC harvested the fruits of ARPA’s continuous funding by hiring one of their former directors and by recruiting some of computer science’s top researchers. At PARC, Xerox developed the Alto and the Star, early personalized computers with a GUI interface, mouse, and even Ethernet data networking. These PARC innovations inspired companies like Apple, Cisco and 3Com to develop new technologies like the Macintosh PC and data routers.
Deeply implicated in the development of the Great Society’s new bureaucracies, Xerox achieved extraordinary growth and profitability during the 1960s. Formerly the Haloid Company, the firm became Haloid-Xerox in 1958. The next year it launched the Xerox 914, the first automatic, plain-paper office copier and considered one of the most popular industrial products of all time. It subsequently saw its annual profits increase from $32 million in 1959 to over $1.1 billion in 1968.(2)
When Xerox went public in 1961, it became one of the hottest stocks of the year. The Xerox name was so strongly tied to the copying process that the term “Xeroxing” became synonymous with paper reproductions. Just as people “Google” information on the web, they would “Xerox” a paper copy of a document. During the 1960s, Xerox maintained a sales force of some 15,000 people to maintain contact with the new bureaucracies and attempt to solve their customer’s every information need. Xerox was aiming at revenues of $10 billion by 1980 and saw computer-related technologies as a key ingredient in the recipe for reaching that goal, especially after it began to encounter serious competition in their major product lines from the Japanese.
Xerox set out to develop a strong presence in the computer field and recruited some key talent from ARPA and ARPA-funded projects throughout the country. ARPA had been literally creating the field of computer science during that time by seeding programs throughout US universities, and their “talent” was prized and sought-after. Xerox also sought to enter this emerging field through acquisitions. In one of their first attempts, they bought Scientific Data Systems (SDS) in 1969. SDS was a small computer company, but with impressive sales. The new purchase was successful with batch processing for scientific and engineering applications but proved to be slow to capitalize on timesharing developments. Ultimately SDS personal ran afoul of Xerox’s new computer elite from ARPA, who were much more committed to developing an interactive “timesharing” computing environment based on apportioning a computer’s processing time via remotely-located stations. The “dumb terminals” connected a user to a major computer via data communications and allowed a single mainframe to service many people at the same time.
A key person in helping to achieve the Xerox plan was a former director of ARPA’s IPTO. Robert Taylor had resigned as the director of ARPA’s main computer division over concerns about Vietnam and ended up at PARC to help them recruit the brightest people in the computing area. Taylor had worked under Licklider at ARPA and had funded many projects including Robert Engelbart’s NLS project. He had even hired Larry Roberts, who coordinated the ARPANET project. Taylor’s background at ARPA proved instrumental in Xerox’s new plan. He was in a key position to reap the rewards of ARPA’s widespread funding. Subsequently, he hired a number of computer stars from the ARPA universe including those from MIT, Harvard, Carnegie-Mellon, the University of Utah, as well as BBN. He was particularly interested in those that had worked for Project Genie, a project at the University of California at Berkeley that had converted a SDS batch-processing computer into a time-sharing utility. Taylor had parted ways with Xerox management after refusing to use SDS computers in their research environment. PARC wanted DEC’s PDP-10, so it could run ARPA’s time-sharing software or develop its own. In the end, the SDS acquisition became a failure.
Drawing on ARPA’s network of computer expertise, PARC contributed significantly to the future of data communications. Robert Metcalfe, left his studies at Harvard to spend some time at the University of Hawaii with the ALOHANET project so he could study data networks. There Metcalfe picked up crucial ideas on packet-switching and collision detection from Engineering Professor Norm Abramson that would prove useful in his Ph.D. dissertation and later for innovations at PARC. Concepts emerging from the ALOHA project were extremely important for the future of data networking technology. These concepts led ultimately to Xerox’s local area networking products called Ethernet (and even later a company called 3Com). While the ARPANET had solved certain issues related to long distance data communications, Ethernet tackled short-range communications needed in an office or campus environment.
Here is a later blog responding to an article in the Wall Street Journal overemphasizing PARC’s influence.
Notes
(1) Xerox CEO Peter McColough’s speech went: “The basic purpose of the Xerox Corporation is to find the best means to bring greater order and discipline to information. Thus our fundamental thrust, our common denominator, has evolved towards establishing leadership in what we call “the architecture of information.” From: Fumbling the Future: How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, The First Personal Computer, by Douglas K. Smith and Robert C. Alexander. NY: toExcel Press. p. 50.
2) Segeller, (1999) Nerds 2.0.1: A Brief History of the Internet. New York: TV Books. p. 158
3) Ibid, p. 130.
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Anthony J. Pennings, PhD recently joined the Digital Media Management program at St. Edwards University in Austin TX, after ten years on the faculty of New York University.
Tags: ALOHANET > architecture of information > ARPA > Ethernet > Norm Abramson > PARC > Robert Metcalfe > Xerox
Is Cyberpunk Making a Comeback?
Posted on | August 23, 2010 | No Comments
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. . . I concocted cyberspace by sitting at a manual typewriter with a blank sheet of paper and writing a bunch of words with I think. . . double-spaced capital letters. . hyperspace. . . other there. . . . you know horrible, like horrible things that would never stick and then I typed cyberspace, and I thought oh, you know.. that’s kind of sexy. . . . [1]
– William Gibson interviewed in the Canadian documentary Cyberscribe (1993)
The word is that Splice (2009) director, Vincenzo Natali, is set to direct the classic cyberpunk novel Neuromancer (1984) by William Gibson. Known also for the 1997 movie The Cube, Natali has picked up the rights to Neuromancer and is working with Gibson to bring it to the screen.
Before the Web, We had Cyberspace
By the late 1980’s, the notion of “cyberspace” began to circulate in discussions about the future of the world’s telecommunications networks. Its meaning was in some contention but it no doubt referred to both the new network technologies and accelerating computing abilities of the new electronic microprocessors that began to combine to form the world’s new telecommunications grid, a dynamic multitrillion dollar infrastructure opening up the electronic “frontier” as the railroads and telegraph opened up the American west.
Cyberspace was often connected with the new “virtual reality” technologies of the time, especially as they came to support diverse participants sharing an electronic computer-generated environment through the use of the new networks. This conception arose because author William Gibson produced the term to describe what he called the electronic “consensual hallucination” in which the characters immersed themselves in his award-winning novel Neuromancer. In his fictional narrative, “console cowboys” connect to the network by “jacking in,” linking into the electronic telecommunications “matrix” via electronic velcro-held “trodes” attached to their heads. Somewhat like a flight simulator, the user experiences a vast simulated space scattered with geometric shapes representing institutional databanks such as the “green cubes of Mitsubishi Bank of America.”
Admittedly that sounds quite weak given the “virtual” reality of recent games like Halo or Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 not to Second Life or or the military simulations used these days, but it helped sparked imaginations at the time and changed the culture of telecommunications from one dominated by telephone company engineers and Washington DC lawyers to the promise of the web and creative imaginations tech-savvy multimedia designers and entrepreneurs of the 1990s and the zeroes.
It will be interesting to see if Vincenzo Natali can pull off Neuromancer and if it will come out a bit better than Gibson’s other ideation, the Keanu Reeves vehicle, Johnny Mnemonic.
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Notes
[1] Quote from Cyberscribe (1991) Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Production. By Producer/Director Frances-Mary Morrison, Editor Jacques Milette.
[2] Image from http://www.collider.com/2010/05/07/neuromancer-vincenzo-natali-splice/
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Anthony J. Pennings, PhD recently joined the Digital Media Management program at St. Edwards University in Austin TX, after ten years on the faculty of New York University.
Tags: Call of Duty > cyberpunk > cyberspace > Halo > Neuromancer > Splice > Vincenzo Natali > virtual reality
Flash: Multimedia Embraces HTML 5
Posted on | July 28, 2010 | Comments Off on Flash: Multimedia Embraces HTML 5
Apple’s rejection of Adobe’s Flash for its iPhones, iPods, and iPads helped to highlight the utility of HTML 5 for multimedia development on the web and in mobile devices. Steve Jobs, in an open letter last April, criticized the legacy media platform. He said it was power-hungry, non-proprietary, lacking in security, unfriendly to mobile applications, non-touch, and just wrong for the future of multimedia applications development. Steve Jobs
Granted, one always has to consider the “reality distortion field (RDF)” in any Jobs pronouncement, but HTML 5 is picking up momentum. It wasn’t long before Microsoft announced it would support HTML5 in its new IE 9 browser, joining the ranks of Apple’s Safari, Google’s Chrome, Firefox, and Opera. The code is rather useless without the cooperation of the dominant browsers.
One controversial issue is the choice of H.264 video encoding technology that is problematic for Mozilla due to the patents filed in countries throughout the world. The open-source browser doesn’t have the deep pockets of Apple, Google, and Microsoft and has pushed Theora video encoding technology instead. Is this an attempt to destroy the Mozilla Firefox browser?
Jobs disputed Adobe’s claim that much of the web’s video and games would not be accessible without Flash. He cited the adoption of HTML5 video players by major media websites like ABC, CBS, CNN, MSNBC, ESPN, Facebook, Flickr, Fox News, National Geographic, Netflix, NPR, People, Time, Sports Illustrated, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and even YouTube. Developers like the elimination of the awkward ‘Object’ tag that has been replaced with more focused and robust tags such as ‘video’ and ‘audio’ that allow them to add specific attributes for multimedia applications within web browsers. For example, the “onemptied” media event attribute specifies the script to be run at the conclusion of an audio or video file.
So a debate is on about the merits of Flash and the potential of HTML5. Flash is striving to stay relevant. It has become H.264-compatible, for example, and works in some applications with touch interfaces. HTML 5, however, has broached Flash’s primary domain by incorporating scalable vector graphics and is challenging Flash’s strength in animation. Many developers are heavily invested in the Flash technology and will continue to use and defend it – but HTML 5 is likely a game-changer.
Anthony J. Pennings, PhD has been on the New York University faculty since 2001 teaching digital media, information systems management, and global political economy.
Tags: Adobe Flash > Chrome > CSS > H.264 > HTML 5 > Javascript > Mozilla Firefox > multimedia development > Steve Jobs
Money and Motivation in Star Trek
Posted on | July 25, 2010 | No Comments
A perennial SF question of mine was asked in the movie Star Trek: First Contact (1996), when the starship Enterprise E of Star Trek: Next Generation fame goes back into time to Earth, circa 2063, about a decade after World War III ends.
They are following a Borg ship that is attacking early Earth to reduce its threat in the future. Lily Sloane, an assistant to the famous inventor of the dominant propulsion system known as warp drive, Zefram Cochrane, gets a chance to go on board the futuristic Enterprise. After getting a brief tour from Captain Jean-Luc Picard and a description of the amazing ship, Lily innocently asks “How much did this thing cost?”
Picard responds with an intriguing if not disappointing, “the economics of the future are somewhat different.” He goes on, “money doesn’t exist in the 24th century”. Lily responds understandably, “No money, you mean you don’t get paid?” He replies, the “acquisition of wealth is no longer the driving force for humanity. We work to better ourselves, and the rest of humanity”. And then he adds “Actually we are much like yourself and Dr. Cochrane.” With this last, Picard has a moral, we are not so much different from you and neither are the motivations for the work we do.
Space ships are recurring icons of speculative fictions. They are usually focused on imaginative new technologies. I often wonder why we don’t have more stories dealing with imagining the new economic systems we would need to build them.
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Anthony J. Pennings, PhD is the Professor of Global Media at Hannam University in South Korea. Previously, he taught at St. Edwards University in Austin, Texas and was on the faculty of New York University from 2002-2012. He also taught at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand and was a Fellow at the East-West Center in Hawaii in the 1990s.
Tags: Star Trek: Next Generation > Starship Enterprise E > World War III > Zefram Cochrane
Revisiting “Multimedia”
Posted on | July 24, 2010 | No Comments
The term “multimedia” has struggled over the years to keep its relevance but continues to be a major moniker of technological change and integration in the media area.
The name emerged during the 1960s and 1970s to refer to adding light shows to live music events and later when carousels of photographic slides were synchronized with hi-fi stereos and voice tracks for live presentations. The term took on new meanings in the late 1980s as the Apple Macintosh matured and hypermedia introduced the notion of linking various media content stored in different files.
In the early 1990s hard drives and CD-ROMs finally provided sufficient storage capacity for combining images and video with text and voice-overs. “Authorware” technologies such as Macromedia’s Director enabled more sophisticated convergence of different medias (text, audio, still images, animation, video, as well as interactivity) into various narrative forms for education, entertainment, or commercial uses. At the center of Director’s utility was the Lingo scripting language introduced in 1988. Lingo was an object-oriented programming (OOP) language developed by John H. Thompson that was designed to mimic spoken grammar. For example, “if sprite 5 is visible then go to the frame”. Lingo and Director became nearly synonymous with multimedia at that time.
I remember giving a keynote address at a New Zealand educational conference held at Massey University in 1994 on “Multi-media and Multi-Intelligences,” borrowing from Howard Gardner’s (1993) Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligences book. In that speech, I talked about how multimedia could enhance Gardiner’s different types of human intelligence: linguistic, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, interpersonal and bodily-kinesthetic.
The popularity of the Internet by the mid-1990s disenfranchised multimedia from its star role, particularly as the web itself was less sophisticated. The early web browsers were primarily text with some jpeg images while audio and video were scarce and poor in quality. The fantastic reach of the World Wide Web held much promise for the future of communications. Multimedia still had relevance in industrial and scientific applications and in museums. Workstations produced by Silicon Graphics and Sun Microsystems also enhanced multimedia applications in scientific simulations and in financial modeling. Kiosks in malls and other venues exposed the general public to multimedia, but the Internet largely sidelined interest in “multimedia” during the mid-1990s as the web gained in popularity.
Macromedia quickly recognized the potential of the web and began to develop authorware that would use the language of the web – HTML- for more sophisticated multimedia websites. While many early website designers preferred coding HTML by hand on text formats like Microsoft Notepad, applications emerged like Coffeecup that began to automate web coding activities. Microsoft’s Frontpage offered a WYSIWYG application for those who didn’t want to bother learning the intricacies of HTML code and Macromedia offered its Dreamweaver application that allowed website designers to switch back and forth from HTML code to a WYSIWYG view. Dreamweaver has become the standard-bearer of multimedia website production and it has techniques embedded that allow different types of media to be integrated easily, as shown in this video:
Multimedia is default condition of nearly all digital media these days. As I write this I can hear my daughter playing a Disney game on my Droid X smartphone. Other applications let me play a guitar, watch Youtube videos, and do Google searches from voice commands. We live in a global society of multi-mediated communications. In future posts I want to pose more meaningful questions about the state and influence of multimedia communications in our lives. One of the first things that I want to investigate is how Medium Theory is being applied to study this new environment.
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Anthony J. Pennings, PhD is the Professor of Global Media at Hannam University in South Korea. Previously, he taught at St. Edwards University in Austin, Texas and was on the faculty of New York University from 2002-2012. He also taught at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand and was a Fellow at the East-West Center in Hawaii in the 1990s.
Tags: CD-ROMs > Director > hypermedia > Lingo > Macromedia > multi-mediated communications
How IT Came to Rule the World, 2.4: Global Money and Spreadsheet Capitalism
Posted on | July 18, 2010 | No Comments
The growth of “petrodollars” due to increasing foreign oil consumption during the 1970s combined with the accelerating developments in computing and communications technologies to create a new realm of electronic finance with vast political and economic repercussions throughout the world. What emerged was a new system of digital capitalism that was propelled, in part, by the new utility in spreadsheet calculation and global markets connected via undersea fiber optics and orbital satellites. I have called this the regime of digital monetarism.
The new regime was unwieldy, but within this turmoil, an important set of technologies emerged that would add a major new dimension in the process of electrifying money and capital. With Cold War technologies, a global infrastructure for data communications emerged with satellites and undersea communications cables leading the way. Simultaneously, Apple Computers released the Apple II microcomputer based on a Motorola microprocessor. Of central importance was the electronic spreadsheet. VisiCalc (Visible Calculator) was designed for use on the Apple II in 1979, and it became an immediate hit for a large number of different people needing to make financial calculations. In August of 1981, IBM introduced its own “Personal Computer” and soon after Lotus 1-2-3 became available for the “PC” and all the “IBM-compatible” clones such as AST, Compaq, and Dell.
In an era of incredible economic and financial flux, the electronic spreadsheet became the “killer app” that guaranteed the success of the PC industry and also provided an incredible new utility for individuals who were empowered to create dramatic new numerical calculations and construct new financial “what-if” scenarios in unprecedented short timeframes. Spreadsheet technology was foundational for digital monetarism because it provided a calculative tool that became universally available and provided immediate feedback via the accessibility of the personal computer.
This global political economy combined a new “free enterprise” fundamentalism (Reagan-Thatcherism) with a system of unprecedented capital mobility. Empowered by the calculative and organizing powers of the spreadsheet, global finance targeted debt-ridden governments and began a process of privatizing public assets such as airlines, broadcasting, electricity, transportation, oil fields and telecommunications by valuing assets, creating state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and then finally selling them off as corporate entities to global institutional investors such as pension and sovereign funds.
In the process, national barriers to unregulated capital flows broke down and new forms of communications (Internet) and news (“Bloomberg Box”) emerged to facilitate the information flows needed for investment decisions. Combined with innovations in mathematical algorithms, global money morphed into a variety of financial instruments traded in electronic “dark pools” and on interconnected financial exchanges.
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Anthony J. Pennings, PhD is Professor and Associate Chair of the Department of Technology and Society, State University of New York, Korea. Before joining SUNY, he taught at Hannam University in South Korea and from 2002-2012 was on the faculty of New York University. Previously, he taught at St. Edwards University in Austin, Texas, Marist College in New York, and Victoria University in New Zealand. He has also spent time as a Fellow at the East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii.
Tags: digital spreadsheet > petrodollars > spreadsheet capitalism
The Meaning Makers: Google
Posted on | July 12, 2010 | No Comments
As I mentioned previously, my talk in Hawaii about Internet TV turned into a discussion of Google and its increasing dominance of the advertising industry. In particular, how Google was porting its advertising technologies into an integrated ad management system that includes online, audio, and video. TV is about to turn into “Smart TV” with Google as the major “packager” of its video content, providing the results of searches and associated advertising.
Advertising reached global sales of $377 billion with 40% ($151 billion) of total advertising sales coming through television sales and another $61 billion through online advertising. Global spending on paid search amounted to $29.79 billion, or 48.8% of all online spending according to www.magnaglobal.com. It is likely that online advertising will overtake newspapers as the second-largest advertising medium by 2013, and total $103 billion in 2015.
Google pulled ahead of its search ad rivals due to a couple of algorithmic innovations that still remain largely proprietary, and its adoption of auction theories for selling advertising. Steven Levy’s article on “Secret of Googlenomics: Data-Fueled Recipe Brews Profitability” in Wired Magazine gives a great introduction to what may be the most extraordinary business idea ever devised.
Google’s $23.6 billion in 2009 revenues , 97% coming from advertising, puts it ahead of the world’s largest advertising holding companies: Omnicon, Publicis, WPP, and Interpublic. Yet it sees additional opportunities such as Internet TV. Television’s global advertising revenues of $151 billion is expected to grow significantly. That figure represents a major growth potential for Google.
As TV becomes part of the link economy, every click represents an intention, an interest, a bit of meaning that is stored in Google’s huge data bases located around the country in huge data farms. Google’s goal of “organizing the world’s information” looks to be on schedule.
Anthony J. Pennings, PhD has been on the NYU faculty since 2001 teaching digital media, information systems management, and global political economy.
Tags: Googlenomics > Internet TV > online advertising > Smart TV > Steven Levy > video content
Back from Hawaii and the EWC Conference
Posted on | July 7, 2010 | No Comments
Just back from a week in Hawaii to attend the EWC/EWCA 50th Anniversary International Conference of the East-West Center. I moderated a panel on the “The Digital Divide: Bridges and Developments” and gave a talk on “Digital Television and the Impact of Global E-Commerce and Social Media” which turned out be more about the stakeholders involved in Internet TV and the competitive advantages of Google in a possible transformation of television to what Amanda Lotz calls the “post-network era”.
I was lucky to be a part of the EWC from 1983 to 1988. I started off as a research intern studying computerization in Asian countries and then they sponsored my Masters degree and half of my Ph.D. I was lucky to stay on a few more years as a Graduate Assistant at the University of Hawaii Communications Department and as a Henry R. Luce Fellow before taking my first faculty position at Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand.
EWC and an Economic Heritage
The EWC is becoming more popular because it was the place where Barack Obama’s parents met 
and as a major reason APEC will be in Honolulu next year. The conference had an interesting session on his mother, Ann Dunham Soetoro, which was moderated by her daughter Maya Soetoro-Ng, who now works at the East-West Center. President Obama’s mother did some impressive field work in the poorest areas of Indonesia and was an early advocate of micro-credit, providing small loans to aspiring entrepreneurs. Although she was an anthropologist, her work was a very practical inquiry into the economic processes of these poor areas and people working and living in them. Although no particular speaker stood out, they each helped paint an overall picture of a very bright, practical and dedicated academic who turned into a tireless advocate for economic development.
The question I raised with Maya afterward was about the influence of her grandmother, Madelyn Dunham, who was a banker in Honolulu, rising to the position of Vice-President in one of Hawaii’s major banks. Banks scrutinize economic activities at a very micro level. I mention this because I think there is an interesting economic linkage between grandmother-mother-President that bares some scrutiny. I have no idea if they had contentious or controversial discussions. But I do wonder if the President’s mother’s emphasis on entrepreneurship had been influenced by her own mother’s experience as a banker.
The President’s community organizing experience for example makes more sense within context of this heritage. It shows an appreciation of the day-to-day economic processes that make up community success and life. I hope President Obama stays in touch with his roots as I think these issues are crucial for the transformation the US is going through. The US needs to rebuild from the ground up, reconstruct its circuits of credit, produce its energy locally, clean up its food supply, re-educate itself, and smartly stay integrated within the world economy.
Anthony J. Pennings, PhD has been on the NYU faculty since 2001 teaching digital media, information systems management, and global political economy.
Tags: Amanda Lotz > Ann Dunham Soetoro > EWC/EWCA 50th Anniversary International Conference > Google TV > Madelyn Dunham
Referencing this Material
About Me
Professor at State University of New York (SUNY) Korea since 2016. Moved to Austin, Texas in August 2012 to join the Digital Media Management program at St. Edwards University. Spent the previous decade on the faculty at New York University teaching and researching information systems, digital economics, and strategic communications.
You can reach me at:
apennings70@gmail.com
anthony.pennings@sunykorea.ac.kr
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